Meiji Era

The Meiji Era (明治時代 1867-1912) denotesreign ofMeiji Emperor. During this time, Japan started her modernizationroseworld power status.

In 1867, 14-year-old Mutsuhito succeded his father,Emperor Komei, takingtitle Meiji, meaning "enlightened rule". The Meiji Restoration1868 ended265-year-old feudalistic Tokugawa shogunate.

Considering thateconomic structureproduction ofcountry was roughly equivalentElizabethan era England,becomeworld powersuchshort amounttimewidely regarded as remarkable progress. This process was closely monitoredheavily subsidized byMeiji government, enhancingpower ofgreat zaibatsu firms such as MitsuiMitsubishi.

Handhand,zaibatsugovernment guidednation, always borrowing technology fromWest. Japan gradually took controlmuchAsia's marketmanufactures, beginningtextiles. The economic structure became very mercantilistic, importing raw materialsexporting finished products -reflectionJapan's relative povertyraw materials.

Following her defeatChinaKorea inSino-Japanese War (1894-1895), Japan broke through as an international power withvictory against RussiaManchuria (north-eastern China) inRusso-Japanese War1904-1905. AlliedBritain since 1902, Japan joinedAlliesWorld War I, seizing German-held territoryChina andPacific inprocess, but otherwise remained largely out ofconflict.

Afterwar,weakened Europe leftgreater shareinternational markets toU.S.Japan, which emerged greatly strengthened. Japanese competition made great inroads into hitherto European-dominated marketsAsia, not onlyChina, but evenEuropean colonies like IndiaIndonesia, reflectingdevelopment ofMeiji era.

The major institutional accomplishment afterSatsuma Rebellion wasstart oftrend toward developing representative government. People who had been forced out or left out ofgoverning apparatus afterMeiji Restoration had witnessed or heard ofsuccessrepresentative institutionsother countries ofworldapplied greater pressure forvoicegovernment.

A major proponentrepresentative government was Itagaki Taisuke (1837-1919),powerful Tosa leader who had resigned fromCouncilState overKorean affair1873. Itagaki sought peaceful rather than rebellious meansgainvoicegovernment. He startedschool andmovement aimed at establishingconstitutional monarchy andlegislative assembly. Itagakiothers wroteTosa Memorial1874 criticizingunbridled power ofoligarchycalling forimmediate establishmentrepresentative government.

Dissatisfied withpacereform after having rejoinedCouncilState1875, Itagaki organized his followersother democratic proponents intonationwide Aikokusha (SocietyPatriots)pushrepresentative government1878. In 1881,an actionwhich hebest known, Itagaki helped foundJiyuto (Liberal Party), which favored French political doctrines.

In 1882 Okuma Shigenobu establishedRikken Kaishinto (Constitutional Progressive Party), which called forBritish-style constitutional democracy. In response, government bureaucrats, local government officials,other conservatives establishedRikken Teiseito (Imperial Rule Party),progovernment party,1882. Numerous political demonstrations followed, somethem violent, resultingfurther overnment restrictions. The restrictions hinderedpolitical partiesleddivisions withinamong them. The Jiyuto, which had opposedKaishinto, was disbanded1884,Okuma resigned as Kaishinto president.

Government leaders,preoccupiedviolent threatsstability andserious leadership split overKorean affair, generally agreed that constitutional government should someday be established. The Choshu leader Kido Takayoshi had favoredconstitutional formgovernment since before 1874,several proposalsconstitutional guarantees had been drafted. The oligarchy, however, while acknowledgingrealitiespolitical pressure, was determinedkeep control. Thus, modest steps were taken.

The Osaka Conference1875 resulted inreorganizationgovernmentan independent judiciaryan appointed CouncilElders (Genronin) taskedreviewing proposals forlegislature. The emperor declared that "constitutional government shall be establishedgradual stages" as he orderedCouncilEldersdraftconstitution.

Three years later,ConferencePrefectural Governors established elected prefectural assemblies. Although limitedtheir authority, these assemblies representedmove indirectionrepresentative government atnational level,by 1880 assemblies also had been formedvillagestowns. In 1880 delegates from twenty-four prefectures heldnational conventionestablishKokkai Kisei Domei (LeagueEstablishingNational Assembly).

Althoughgovernment was not opposedparliamentary rule, confronted withdrive"people's rights",continuedtrycontrolpolitical situation. New laws1875 prohibited press criticism ofgovernment or discussionnational laws. The Public Assembly Law (1880) severely limited public gatherings by disallowing attendance by civil servantsrequiring police permissionall meetings.

Withinruling circle, however,despiteconservative approach ofleadership, Okuma continued aslone advocateBritish-style government,governmentpolitical parties andcabinet organized bymajority party, answerable tonational assembly. He calledelectionsbe held by 1882fornational assemblybe convened by 1883;doing so, he precipitated apolitical crisis that endedan 1881 imperial rescript declaringestablishment ofnational assembly1890dismissing Okuma.

RejectingBritish model, Iwakuraother conservatives borrowed heavily fromPrussian constitutional system. One ofMeiji oligarchy, Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909),Choshu nativeinvolvedgovernment affairs, was chargeddrafting Japan's constitution. He ledConstitutional Study Mission abroad1882, spending mosthis timeGermany. He rejectedUnited States Constitution as "too liberal" andBritish system as too unwieldyhavingparliamenttoo much control overmonarchy;FrenchSpanish models were rejected as tending toward despotism.

On its return, one offirst acts ofgovernment wasestablish new ranks fornobility. Five hundred persons fromold court nobility, former daimyo,samurai who had provided valuable service toemperor were organizedfive ranks: prince, marquis, count, viscount,baron.

Ito was putcharge ofnew BureauInvestigationConstitutional Systems1884, andCouncilState was replaced1885 withcabinet headed by Ito as prime minister. The positionschancellor, minister ofleft,minister ofright, which had existed since7th century as advisory positions toemperor, were all abolished. In their place,Privy Council was established1888evaluateforthcoming constitution andadviseemperor.

To further strengthenauthority ofstate,Supreme War Council was established underleadershipYamagata Aritomo (1838-1922),Choshu native who has been credited withfounding ofmodern Japanese armywasbecomefirst constitutional prime minister. The Supreme War Council developedGerman-style general staff system withchiefstaff who had direct access toemperorwho could operate independently ofarmy ministercivilian officials.

When finally granted byemperor assignhis sharing his authoritygiving rightslibertieshis subjects,1889 Constitution ofEmpireJapan (the Meiji Constitution) provided forImperial Diet (Teikoku Gikai), composed ofpopularly elected HouseRepresentatives withvery limited franchisemale citizens who paid 15national taxes, about 1 percent ofpopulation, andHousePeers, composednobilityimperial appointees; andcabinet responsible toemperorindependent oflegislature. The Diet could approve government legislationinitiate laws, make representations togovernment,submit petitions toemperor. Nevertheless,spitethese institutional changes, sovereignty still resided inemperor onbasishis divine ancestry.

The new constitution specifiedformgovernment that was still authoritariancharacter, withemperor holdingultimate poweronly minimal concessions madepopular rightsparliamentary mechanisms. Party participation was recognized as part ofpolitical process. The Meiji Constitution waslast asfundamental law until 1947.

Inearly yearsconstitutional government,strengthsweaknesses ofMeiji Constitution were revealed. A small cliqueSatsumaChoshu elite continuedrule Japan, becoming institutionalized as an extraconstitutional bodygenro (elder statesmen). Collectively,genro made decisions reserved foremperor, andgenro, notemperor, controlledgovernment politically.

Throughoutperiod, however, political problems were usually solved through compromise,political parties gradually increased their power overgovernmentheld an ever larger role inpolitical process asresult. Between 18911895, Ito served as prime minister withcabinet composed mostlygenro who wantedestablishgovernment partycontrolHouseRepresentatives. Although not fully realized,trend toward party politics was well established.

Japan emerged fromTokugawa-Meiji transition asfirst Asian industrialized nation. Domestic commercial activitieslimited foreign trade had metdemandsmaterial culture inTokugawa period, butmodernized Meiji era had radically different requirements. Fromonset,Meiji rulers embracedconcept ofmarket economyadopted BritishNorth American formsfree enterprise capitalism. The private sector-- innation blessedan abundanceaggressive entrepreneurs-- welcomed such change.

Economic reforms includedunified modern currency based onyen, banking, commercialtax laws, stock exchanges, andcommunications network. Establishment ofmodern institutional framework conducivean advanced capitalist economy took time but was completed by1890s. By this time,government had largely relinquished direct control ofmodernization process, primarilybudgetary reasons.

Many offormer daimyo, whose pensions had been paid inlump sum, benefited greatly through investmentsmadeemerging industries. Those who had been informally involvedforeign trade beforeMeiji Restoration also flourished. Old bakufu-serving firms that clungtheir traditional ways failed innew business environment.

The government was initially involvedeconomic modernization, providingnumber"model factories"facilitatetransition tomodern period. Afterfirst twenty years ofMeiji period,industrial economy expanded rapidly until about 1920inputsadvanced Western technologylarge private investments. Stimulated by warsthrough cautious economic planning, Japan emerged from World War I asmajor industrial nation.

Afterdeath ofMeiji Emperor1912,Taisho Emperor tookthrone, thus beginningTaisho Period.

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