Karl Marx
Karl Marx (May 5, 1818 - March 14, 1883) was an influential German political philosophersocial theorist. Although Marx addressed many issueshis career asjournalistphilosopher, hemost famoushis analysishistorytermsclass conflict, summed uphis assertion that, "The interestscapitalistswage-laborersdiametrically opposedeach other."[1]
Early life
Marx was born intoprogressive Jewish familyTrier, Prussia (nowpartGermany). His father Herschel waslawyer. As advancement opportunitiesJews were rather limitedearly 19th century Prussiathey were not extremely religious, Herschel decidedchange his nameHeinrichconvertfamily toPrussian state religionLutheranism, after which his legal career prospered. The Marx family was very liberal andMarx household hosted many visiting intellectualsartists through Karl's early life.Education
Marx received outstanding marksgymnasium,approximate equivalenthigh school. His senior thesis (which anticipated his later development ofsocial analysisreligion, although inway that emphasized social functions rather than economicpolitical inequality) wastreatise on "Religion: The Glue That Binds Society Together",which he wonprize.Marx enrolled inUniversityBonn1833study law, at his father's behest. Bonn wasnotorious party school,Marx did poorly as he spent mosthis time singing songsbeer halls. The next year, his father made him transfer tofar more seriousacademically oriented Friedrich-Wilhelms-UniversitätBerlin (now known as Humboldt University). There, his interests turnedphilosophy, muchhis father's dismay,he joinedcirclestudentsyoung professors known as"Young Hegelians", led by Bruno Bauer. Some membersthis circle drew an analogy between post-Aristotelian philosophypost-Hegelian philosophy.
Georg Hegel had just recently died1831,during his lifetime was an extremely influential figure atUniversityin German academiageneral. The Hegelian establishment (known asRight Hegelians)place atUniversity maintained thatserieshistorical dialectics had been completed,that Prussian society asexisted wasculminationall social developmentdate,an extensive civil service system, good universities, industrialization,high employment. The Young Hegelianswhom Marx was associated believed that there were still further dialectical changescome,thatPrussian society oftime was far from perfect asstill contained pocketspoverty, government censorship wasplace,non-Lutherans suffered from religious discrimination.
Marx was warned notsubmit his doctoral dissertation atUniversityBerlin, aswould certainly be poorly received there duehis reputation asYoung Hegelian radical. Marx instead submitted his dissertation, which comparedatomic theoriesDemocritusEpicurus, toUniversityJena1840, wherewas accepted.
Career
When his mentor Bauer was dismissed fromphilosophy faculty1842, Marx abandoned philosophyjournalismwent oneditRheinische Zeitung,radical German newspaper. Afternewspaper was later shut1843,part dueMarx's conflictsgovernment censors, Marx returnedphilosophy, turnedpolitical activism,worked asfree-lance journalist.Marx first movedFrance, where he re-evaluated his relationshipBauer andYoung Hegelians,wrote "OnJewish Question," mostlycritiquecurrent notionscivil-rightspolitical emancipation. It wasParis that he metbegan workinghis life-long collaborator Friedrich Engels, who called Marx's attention tosituation ofworking class,guided Marx's interesteconomics. After he was forcedleave Parishis writings, heEngels movedBrussels.
Thereco-wrote The German Ideology,critique ofphilosophyHegel andYoung Hegelians,then Marx wrote The PovertyPhilosophy,critiqueFrench socialist thought. These works layfoundationMarxEngels' most famous work, The Communist Manifesto, first published on February 21, 1848, which was commissioned byCommunist League (formerly,League ofJust), an organizationGerman emigrés whom Marx had metLondon.
That year Europe experienced revolutionary upheaval;working-class movement seized power from King Louis PhilippeFranceinvited MarxreturnParis. When this government collapsed1849, Marx movedLondon. In 1852 Marx wrote his famous pamphlet The Eighteenth BrumaireLouis Bonaparte,which he analyzed Napoleon III's take overFrance. In 1864 Marx organizedInternational Workingmen's Association, later calledFirst International, asbasecontinued political activism. This organization collapsed1872part because offall ofParis Commune,in part because many members turnedMikhail Bakunin's anarchism. In London Marx also dedicated himselfhistoricaltheoretical works,most famouswhich ismultivolume Das Kapital (Capital: A CritiquePolitical Economy),first volumewhich was published1867.
Marx died London inyear 1883,is buriedHighgate Cemetery, London.
Influences on Marx's philosophy
In general, Marx's thought has been influenced by two often contradictory elements: determinismactivism. Onone hand, Marx believed that he could study historysociety scientifically,derive laws that explainpredictcoursehistory andoutcomesocial conflicts. Some followersMarx conclude thatcommunist revolutioninevitable. Onother hand, Marx famously asserted that "philosophers have only interpretedworld,various ways;point ischange it,"dedicated himselftryingchangeworld. Consequently, some followersMarx conclude that dedicated revolutionaries must organize social change.Marx's theory, which he called "historical materialism"which Engels called "scientific socialism" or "dialectical materialism",based on Hegel's claim that history occurs throughdialectic, or clash,opposing forces. Hegel wasphilosophical idealist who believed that we live inworldappearances,true realityan ideal. Marx accepted this notion ofdialectic, but rejected Hegel's idealism. In this he was influenced by Ludwig Feuerbach. In The EssenceChristianity, Feuerbach argued that Godreallycreationman,thatqualities people attributeGodreally qualitieshumanity. Accordingly, Marx argued thatismaterial world thatreal,that our ideasitconsequences, not causes, ofworld. Thus, like Hegelother philosophers, Marx distinguished between appearancesreality. But he did not believe thatmaterial world hides from us"real" world ofideal; oncontrary, he thought that historicallysocially specific ideologies prevented people from seeingmaterial conditionstheir lives clearly.
The other important contributionMarx's revisionHegelianismianism was Engels's book, The Condition ofWorking ClassEngland1844, which led Marxconceive ofhistorical dialectictermsclass conflict, andseemodern working class asmost progressive forcerevolution.
Marx's philosophy
The notionlaborfundamentalMarx's thought. Basically, Marx argued that ithuman naturetransform nature,he calls this processtransformation "labor" andcapacitytransform nature labor power. For Marx, this isnatural capacity forphysical activity, but itintimately tied tohuman mindhuman imagination:- A spider conducts operations that resemble those ofweaver, andbee putsshame many an architect inconstructionher cells. But what distinguishesworst architect frombestbeesthis, thatarchitect raises his structureimagination before he erectsin reality.
Although "labor power"Marxhuman nature, he did not believe that all people workedsame way, or that how one worksentirely personalindividual. Instead, he argued that work issocial activity,thatconditionsforms underthrough which people worksocially determinedchange over time.
Marx's analysishistorybased on his distinction betweenmeansproduction, literally those things, like landnatural resources,technology, thatnecessary forproductionmaterial goods, andsocial relationsproduction,other words,social relationships people enter into asacquireusemeansproduction. Together these comprisemodeproduction; Marx observed that within any given societymodeproduction changes,that European societies had progressed from feudal modeproduction tocapitalist modeproduction. In general, Marx believed thatmeansproduction change more rapidly thanrelationsproduction (for example, we developnew technology, such asInternet,only later do we develop lawsregulate that technology). For Marx this mismatch between basesuperstructure ismajor sourcesocial disruptionconflict.
Marx understood"social relationsproduction"comprise not only relations among individuals, but between or among groupspeople, or classes. Asscientistmaterialist, Marx did not understand classes as purely subjective (in other words, groupspeople who consciously identifiedone another). He soughtdefine classestermsobjective criteria, such as their accessresources.
Marx was especially concernedhow people relatethat most fundamental resourceall, their own labor-power. Marx wrote extensively about thisterms ofproblemalienation. As withdialectic, Marx began withHegelianian notionalienation but developedmore materialist conception. For Marx,possibility that one may give up ownershipone's own labor -- one's capacitytransformworld --tantamountbeing alienated from one's own nature;isspiritual loss. Marx described this losstemscommodity fetishism,which people comebelieve thatisvery things thatproduce thatpowerful, andsourcespowercreativity, rather than people themselves. He argued that when this happens, people beginmediate all their relationships among themselveswith others through commodities.
Commodity fetishisman examplewhat MarxEngels called false consciousness, whichclosely relatedtheir understandingideology. By ideologymeant ideas that reflectinterests ofparticular class atparticular timehistory, but whichpresented as universaleternal. MarxEngels point was not only that such beliefswrong;serve an important political function. Put another way,control that one class exercises overmeansproduction includes not onlyproductionfood or manufactured goods,includesproductionideas as well (this provides one possible explanationwhy members ofsubordinate class may hold ideas contrarytheir own interests). Thus, while such ideas may be false,also revealcoded form some truth about political relations. For example, althoughbelief thatthings people produceactually more productive thanpeople who produced themliterally absurd,does reflectfact (accordingMarxEngels) that people under capitalismalienated from their own labor-power. Another examplethis sortanalysisMarx's understandingreligion, summed up inpassage fromContribution toCritiqueHegel's "PhilosophyRight:"
- Religious suffering is, at one andsame time,expressionreal suffering andprotest against real suffering. Religion issigh ofoppressed creature,heart ofheartless world, andsoulsoulless conditions. It isopium ofpeople.
Marx's critiquecapitalism
Marx argued that this alienationlabor power (and resulting commodity fetishism)preciselydefining featurecapitalism. Priorcapitalism, markets existedEurope where producersmerchants boughtsold commodities. AccordingMarx,capitalist modeproduction developedEurope when labor itself becamecommodity -- when peasants became freesell their own labor-power,neededsell their own labor becauseno longer possessed their own land or tools necessaryproduce. People sell their labor-power whenaccept compensationreturnwhatever workdo ingiven periodtime (in other words, theynot sellingproducttheir labor, but their capacitywork). In returnselling their labor powerreceive money which allows themsurvive. Those who must sell their labor powerlive"proletarians." The person who buyslabor power, generally someone who does ownlandtechnologyproduce, is"capitalist" or "bourgeois." (NOTE: Marx considered this an objective descriptioncapitalism, distinct from any one ofvarietyideological claimsor about capitalism).Marx distinguished capitalists from merchants. Merchants buy goodsone placesell themanother; more precisely,buy thingsone marketsell themanother. Sincelawssupplydemand operate within given markets, thereoftendifference betweenprice ofcommodityone marketanother. Merchants hopecapturedifference between these two markets. AccordingMarx, capitalists, onother hand, take advantage ofdifference betweenlabor market andmarketwhatever commodityproduced bycapitalist. Marx observed thatpractically every successful industrypricelabor was lower thanprice ofmanufactured good. Marx called this difference "surplus value"argued that this surplus value wasfactsource ofcapitalist's profit.
The capitalist modeproductioncapabletremendous growth becausecapitalist can,has an incentive to, reinvest profitsnew technologies. Marx consideredcapitalist classbemost revolutionaryhistory, becauseconstantly revolutionizedmeansproduction. But Marx believed that capitalism was proneperiodic crises. He suggested that over time, capitalists would invest moremorenew technologies,lesslesslabor. Since Marx believed that surplus value appropriated from labor issourceprofits, he concluded thatrateprofit would fall even aseconomy grew. Whenrateprofit falls belowcertain point,result would berecesion or depressionwhich certain sectors ofeconomy would collapse. Marx understood that during suchcrisispricelabor would also fall,eventually make possibleinvestmentnew technologies andgrowthnew sectors ofeconomy.
Marx believed that this cyclegrowth, collapse,growth would be punctuated by increasingly severe crises. Moreover, he believed thatlong-term consequencethis process was necessarilyempowerment ofcapitalist class andimpoverishment ofproletariat. Finally, he believed that wereproletariatseizemeansproduction,would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, andsystemproduction less vulnerableperiodic crises.
Marx's influence
The bodyworkMarxEngels coverswide rangetopicspresentscomplex analysishistorysocietytermsclass relations. FollowersMarxEngels have drawn on this workproposepoliticaleconomic philosophy dubbed Marxism. Nevertheless, there have been numerous debates among Marxists over howinterpret Marx's writingshowapply his conceptscurrent eventsconditions (and itimportantdistinguish between "Marxism""what Marx believed;"example, shortly before he died1880, Marx wroteletter toFrench workers' leader Jules Guesde, andMarx's son-in-law Paul Lafargue, accusing them"revolutionary phrase-mongering" anddenyingvaluereformist struggles; "if thatMarxism" -- paraphrasing what Marx wrote -- "then I am notMarxist"). Essentially, people useword "Marxist"describe those who rely on Marx's conceptual language (e.g. modeproduction, class, commodity fetishism)understand capitalistother societies, ordescribe those who believe thatworker's revolution isonly means tocommunist society.Six years after Marx's death, Engelsothers founded"Second International" asbasecontinued political activism. This organization collapsed1914,part because some members turnedEdward Bernstein's "evolutionary" socialism,in part becausedivisions precipitated by World War I.
World War I also led toRussian Revolution andconsequent ascendenceVladimir Lenin's leadership ofcommunist movement, embodied in"Third International". Lenin claimedbe bothphilosophicalpolitical heirMarx,developedpolitical program, called Leninism or Bolshevism, which calledrevolution organizedled bycentrally organized Communist Party.
After Lenin's death,Secretary-General ofCommunist Party ofSoviet Union, Joseph Stalin, seized control ofPartystate apparatus. He argued that beforeworld-wide communist revolution would be possible,Communist Party ofSoviet Union haddedicate itselfbuilding communismtheir own country.
At this time, Leon Trotsky leftSoviet Unionin 1934 foundedcompeting "Fourth International." Some followersTrotsky argued that Stalin had createdbureaucratic state rather thansocialist state.
In China Mao Zedong also claimedbe an heirMarx, but argued that peasantsnot just workers could playleading role incommunist revolution.
In1920s'30s,groupdissident Marxists atFrankfurt SchoolGermany, among them Max HorkheimerTheodor Adorno, espoused Critical Theory (unrelatedCritical philosophy), which offerednon- Bolshevist critiquecontemporary capitalism. Other influential non-Bolshevik Marxists at that time include Walter Benjamin, Antonio Gramsci,Rosa Luxemburg. Henryk Grossman, who elaboratedmathematical basisMarx's 'lawcapitalist breakdown', was another contemporary.
In 1949 Paul SweezyLeo Huberman founded The Monthly Review,journalpress,provideoutletMarxist thought inUnited States independent ofCommunist Party.
Contemporary criticisms
Marxian theory has been criticized from numerous pointsview. Many proponentscapitalism have argued that capitalismfactultimatelymore effective meansgeneratingredistributing wealth than socialism or communism,thatgulf between richpoor that concerned MarxEngels wastemporary phenomenon. Some suggest that greed andneedacquire material wealthan inherent componenthuman behavior,is not caused byadoptioncapitalism or any other specific economic system (although economic anthropologists have questioned this assertion),that different economic systems reflect different social responsesthis fact. Economists generally reject his use of"labor theoryvalue," although such critics generally overlook Marx's distinction between valueprice.Marx has also been criticized fromleft. Evolutionary Socialists reject his claim that socialism can be accomplished only through class conflictviolent revolution. Others argue that classnotmost fundamental inequalityhistory,call attentionpatriarchy or race. Some today questiontheoreticalhistorical validity"class" as an analytic construct or aspolitical actor. In this line, some question Marx's reliance on 19th century notions that linked science withidea"progress" (see social evolution). Many observe that capitalism has changed much since Marx's time,that class differencesrelationshipsmuch more complex -- citing as one examplefact that much corporate stock inUnited Statesowned by workers through pension funds. (see post-structuralismpostmodernismdiscussionstwo movements generally aligned withleft thatcriticalMarxMarxism.)
Outside Europe andUnited States, communism has generally been superseded by anti-colonialistnationalist struggles (althoughsometimes appealMarxtheoretical support).
Contemporary supportersMarx argue most generally that Marx was correct that human behavior reflects determinate historicalsocial conditions (andtherefore changingcannot be understoodtermssome universal "human nature"). More specifically,argue his analysiscommoditiesstill usefulthat alienationstillproblem. Some argue that capitalism does not exist as an independent systemany one country,that one must analyzeasglobal system. They further argue that when examined asglobal system, capitalismstill organizingexacerbatinggulf between richpoor that first caught Marx's attention when he read Engels' book on Britain.
A small numberpeople infree software movement consider thatmodeproductionfree software representsnew modeproduction that haspotentialsupersedecapitalist modeproduction, see Project Oekonux.
See also
External links
E-textssomeKarl Marx's works:- Mondo Politico Library's presentationMarxEngels' Communist Manifesto (full text; formattedeasy on-screen reading)
- The Marx & Engels Internet Archive - containsfull textmany works, all available underGNU FDL.
- Project Gutenberg e-textsworks by Karl Marx
