God
This articleabout gods, including bothomnipotent Godmany Western beliefs andwide rangeother beliefs about gods. The Wikipedia software automatically capitalizesfirst letterwords, leading tounfortunate presence ofcapital insteadlowercase G inarticle title.The noun god refersany ofnumberpostulated immortal, supernatural beings, usually saidrule, alone orcompanyother gods, overdestinieshumankind anduniverse. When spelled withcapital "G"isproper noun, usuallyname givenEnglish toone supreme being as postulated bythree major Abrahamic religions, Christianity, IslamJudaism. When spelled withsmall "g"iscommon noun, referring topostulated supernatural beingany religious system, asexamplegods ofGreekRoman religions.
It can also be usedrefersimilar concepts such as an energy or consciousness that pervadesuniverse,whose existence makesuniverse possible;sourceall existence;besthighest good within all sentient beings; or even that whichbeyond all understanding or definition.
Conflicting interpretations arise regardingname"God",whatname actually means — ofteninfinite God conceptmixednon-infinite personifications"God" (i.e. God as an old man,Zeus or Odin.) A belief in"God" or godsfoundmany cultures, although followers ofparticular God or gods may consider other godsbe inferior. Likewise many people hold non-literal, sometimes even secular interpretationsGod — fewwhich may actually contradictpure conceptan "infinite God," despite any contradictions these may haveany particular religious tradition.
Etymology
The word "God" comes fromOld English/German/Norse language familyis equivalent toderivatives ofLatin word "Deus". Many monotheistic concepts of"God" descend fromAbrahamic traditionYHVH ("I am that I am", "I amOne Who Is," "He who cannot be named"). The meaning & etymology behindGermanic/Indo-European word "God" as usedEnglishit's cognants (such as 'Gott'modern German) have been hotly disputed, though most agree inreconstructed Proto-Indo-European form Ȝuðán, which means something like 'possession' or 'inspiration,'could be relatedeverything fromold Germanic divinity Wotan/Odin, toGreek word 'Khute,' meaning "Libation"
Godmonotheistic religions
The generic term Godoften used asproper name by most adherentsmost monotheistic faiths. Different namesGod have arisen from both language differencesfrom religious traditions. Both kindsbranches have generated evolutions inname"God."
- Allah - Islam/Arabic. See alsoNinety-nine namesAllah
- Jehovah or Yahweh - one ofnames usedGod inBible, based onHebrew YHVH (יהוה). This name, while appearingJewish prayers,never pronounced (Adonaiusually said instead). As written Hebrew did not originally mark vowels,original pronunciationspeculative.
- Adonai - Judaism. See The nameGodJudaismmany other Jewish namesGod.
- The Holy Trinity (meaning The Father, Jesus ChristSon, andHoly Spirit/"Holy Ghost") - A name used primarilyCatholicEastern Orthodox prayersliturgy. The doctrine ofTrinityheld by mostChristianity from at leasttime ofFirst CouncilNicaea325 A.D. Compare Godhead.
Attemptsprove or disproveexistenceGod
Throughout history, many proofs have been offered both foragainstexistenceGod. For example,has been argued that, without postulatingexistenceone, eternal God,origin ofuniverse appears inexplicable, since itnot logically possiblesomethingcome from nothing. Conversely,has been argued that such an origin may be an inevitable consequence ofparadoxnothingness,thatinexplicable existenceGodno explanation at all. Many have maintained that beliefGod depends on faith, not upon any argument or proof, stating that all such argumentsby their nature inconclusive.
Details can be found inarticles Arguments forexistenceGodArguments againstexistenceGod.
The NatureGod
Theology isstudy ofnature ofdivine. In some cases, theologians attemptexplicate (andsome cases systematize)assumptions that underlie specific, organized, religions;other cases, theologians seektransformpersonal experience ofdivine into some philosophical system. Theologies begin withnotion"god;" different theologies have been groupedclassified accordingtheir views on two fundamental issues:
- Is God singular or plural (perhapstrinity)?
- Is God transcendent or immanent, or both?
- Theism holds that Godboth transcendentimmanent; thus, Godsimultaneously infinitein some way present inaffairs ofworld. Most theists hold that Godomnipotent, omniscient,omnibenevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibilityevilsuffering inworld. Some theists ascribeGodself-conscious or purposeful limitingomnipotence, omniscience, or omnibenevolence. Fordiscussion ofmeaning"God"this sense, see: WhatGod.
- Deism holds that Godwholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene inworld beyond what was necessaryHimcreate it. In this view, Godnot anthropomorphic,does not literally answer prayers or cause miraclesoccur.
- Monotheism holds that thereonly one god, or thatone true godworshippeddifferent religions under different names. Polytheism isbelief inmultitudegods, not necessarily all possessedequal power. Different formspolytheism state different numbersgods, ranging fromdozens tothousands.
- Pantheism holds that god isuniverse anduniversegod -- or, more generally, thatuniversedivine. Itmost often explained as havingfeeling that existence hasdivine or awe-inspiring aspect. Hinduismoften characterized as pantheistic.
- Panentheism holds that God contains, butnot identical to,Universe. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paintspanentheistic viewGod; this viewGod has wide acceptanceHasidic Judaism. ThisalsoviewProcess theology andChristian movement known as Creation Spirituality.
- Maltheism isformtheism which holds that God iscruel, arrogant, abusive,untruthful being, unworthyworship. Maltheistsoften monotheisticbelieve that Goddependent on worshiplive.
- Animism isbelief that spirits inhabit every existing thing, including plants, minerals, animals and, including allelements, air, water, earth,fire. The first formworship probably expressed animist ideas. The anthropologist E. B. Tylor argued that religion originally took an animist form.
- Dualism, also called Manichaeism, holds that therebothperfectly good Godan opposing evil deityequal potence. It isbelief that thereonly two fundamental things or substances or constituentsthings inworld at large or inhuman soul. An example would be that both goodevil simultaneously existthat one cannot survive withoutother. Thatbalance each other even though theyindependenteach other. An ancient formZoroastrianism which was known toancient Greeks was dualistnature.
- Henotheism isbeliefone god, but atsame time does not denyexistenceother gods. It isvariationpolytheism which holds that theremany gods, but onethemsupreme andother onesonly ancillarydon't havesame level"god-ness". Some formsGreekRoman classical polytheism fall into this category. The godsNorse mythology, whosubsidiaryOdinanother examplehenotheism. The term has comemeanrecent years that one believesmultiple god/esses, thoughworshipper "borrows" from various cultural groupsmay worship one aboveothers. An example would be worshippingGreco-Roman godone reasonthen askingCeltic godsomething else. This formhenotheismfrequently condemned inTorah or Old Testament. The pagans ofRoman Empire were similarly henotheistic, assome modern-day Neopagans.
- Monolatrism formstypehenotheism. Its adherents believe that many gods do exist, but these gods can exert their power only on those who worship them. Thus,monolatrist may believe inrealitybothEgyptian gods andgod described inBible, but sees him or herself asmemberonly onethese religions. The gods that he/she worships affects their life;other gods do not.
- Polytheism isbeliefmore than one god/dess. In some beliefs itsaid that all these god/dessesof equal powerauthority whileothershierarchy exists. The Greco-Roman deity structure exemplifies polytheism.
Some people, findconceptGod meaningless or unnecessary.
- Atheism holds that no gods exist at all. Different atheists formulate this positiondifferent ways.
- Logical positivism holds thatword "god"(cognitively) meaningless.
- Agnosticism holds thatgod or gods may or may not exist, butdoubtful or noncommittal.
God as Unity or Trinity
Jews, Muslims, andsmall percentChristiansunitarian monotheists. The vast majorityChristians have beenstillTrinitarian monotheists.
Unitarian monotheists hold that thereonly one "person" (sospeak), or one basic substance,God. Some consider Trinitarianismbeformpolytheism. In contrast, Trinitarian monotheists believeone god that exists as three distinct persons who sharesame substance/essence; this beliefcalledTrinity: compare withHindu Trimurti. See also Christology.
Mormons hold that Godonethree divine personages collectively referredasGodhead. Onethese personages isspirit withoutbody referredasHoly Ghost. The other two personagesspiritsperfected or glorified (often called celestial) bodies referredas Heavenly Father (or less commonly "Eloheim")his son, Jesus Christ. Mormons hold that God isHoly Man, or sanctified human who advancedhis divine status throughrepeatable processprogression. They believe that by followingpreceptstheir faith humans can literally become gods (sometimes phrased as "become like Heavenly Father") at some point after deathresurrection. This beliefmainly held inlargest Mormon branch,ChurchJesus ChristLatter-day Saints. This belief system implies, if not explicitly claims, polytheism as opposed tomonotheistic viewsmainstream Christianity.
Monotheistic ConceptionsGod
Judaism, ChristianityIslam see God assingle being who rules overuniverse. These three Western faiths uphold an ancient monotheistic tradition that, accordingtheir belief, isoriginal faithmankind (or alternatively,some believers, begantheir first Prophet, Abraham). In this view one God,creator ofworld, exists. A numberadditional attributes generally linkGod, including Omnipotence (being all-powerful), Omniscience (being all-knowing),Omnibenevolence (being all-loving).
These usually conceiveGod aspersonal God, withwillpersonality. However, many important medieval rationalist philosophersthese three religions taught that an intelligent person should not view God as personal at all,that all these teachings were actually meant as metaphors only. Some intellectualsthese three faiths inWest still accept these views as valid, although many oflaity today do not havewide awarenessthem.
In Eastern Christianity,remains essential that God be personal; hencespeaks ofthree persons ofTrinity. It also emphasizes that God haswill,that GodSon has two wills, divinehuman, though theseneverconflict. The personhoodGod andall human peopleessential toconcepttheosis or divinization.
A numberarguments forexistenceGod have been offered; one argument forthesis that God does not existthe problemevil, withprojectTheodicy asresponse.
Biblical definitionGod
The bookExodus inHebrew Bible (Old Testament) characterizes God by these attributes: "The Lord,Lord,God mercifulgracious, slowanger,aboundingsteadfast lovefaithfulness, keeping steadfast lovethousands, forgiving iniquitytransgressionsin, but who will by no means clearguilty, visitinginiquity offathers uponchildren andchildren's children, tothird andfourth generation."
The Hebrew Bible contains no systematic theology: No attemptmadegivephilosophical or rigorous definitionGod, norhow God acts inworld. It does not explicitly describe God's nature, exemplified by God's assertionExodus that "you cannot see my face;man shall not see melive." It does, however, providepoetic depictionGodHis relationshippeople. According tobiblical historian Yehezkal Kaufmann,essential innovationBiblical theology waspositGod that cares about people,that cares about whether people care about Him. Most people believe thatBible should be viewed as humanity's viewGod, but theologian Abraham Joshua Heschel describedBiblical God as "anthropopathic,"said that we should readBible as God's viewhumanity.
Similarly,New Testament also contains no systematic theology: no attemptmadegivephilosophical or rigorous definitionGod, norhow God acts inworld. The New Testament does, however, provide an implicit theology asteaches that God became human while remaining fully God, inpersonJesus Christ. In this view, God becomes someone that can be seentouched,may speakact inmanner easily perceived by humans, while also remaining transcendantinvisible. This appearsberadical departure fromconceptsGod found inHebrew BibleinQur'an. The New Testament's statements regardingnatureGod were eventually developed intodoctrine ofTrinity.
Aristotelian viewGod
A separate article exists onAristotelian viewGod. Muchthis article discusses Aristotle's book on first philosophy,Metaphysics,which Aristotle discussesmeaning"being as being". In brief, Aristotle holds that "being" primarily refers toUnmoved Movers,assigned onetheseeach movement inheavens. Each Unmoved Mover continuously contemplates its own contemplation,everything that fitssecond meaning"being" by having its sourcemotionitself, moves becauseknowledgeits Mover causes itemulate this Mover (or should).
Many medieval philosophers made use ofideaapproachingknowledgeGod through negative attributes. For example, we should not say that God exists inusual sense ofterm; all we can safely saythat Godnot nonexistent. We should not say that Godwise, but we can say that Godnot ignorant, i.e.some way God has some propertiesknowledge. We should not say that GodOne, but we can state that thereno multiplicityGod's being. See apophatic theology. This article also discusses Aristotle discussionPlatonic theory, accordingwhich ideas areultimate principlesBeing.
Kabbalistic definitionGod
Kabbalah (Jewish esoteric mysticism) teaches that Godneither matter nor spirit. Rather God iscreatorboth, butHimself neither. But if Godso different than His creation, how can there be any interaction betweenCreator andcreated? This question prompted Kabbalistsdiscuss two aspectsGod, (a) God Himself, who inendunknowable,(b)revealed aspectGod who createduniverse, preservesuniverse,interactsmankind. Kabbalists believe that these two aspectsnot contradictory but complement one another.
Some Kabbalistic Jews, such as Moses CordoveroLubavitch (Chabad) Hasidism, hold thatfirst aspectGodactually all that there really is. Nothing exists exceptGod,all elsean illusion. (Depending on how thisexplained, suchview can be considered panentheism, or pantheism.) Most other Kabbalists hold that therean aspectGod thatrevealed toworld.
Kabbalists speak offirst aspectGod as 'En Sof'; thistranslated as "the infinite," or "that which has no limits". In this view, nothing can be said about this aspectGod. This aspectGodimpersonal. Kabbalists speak ofsecond aspectGod as being seen byuniverse as ten emanations from God; these emanationscalled 'sefirot'.
The 'sefirot' mediateinteraction ofultimate unknowable God withphysicalspiritual world. Some explainsefirot as stages ofcreative process whereby God, from His own infinite being, createdprogressionrealms which culminatedour finitephysical universe. Others suggest thatsefirot may be thoughtas analogous tofundamental lawsphysics. Just as gravity, electro-magnetism,strong nuclear force, andweak nuclear force allowinteractions between matterenergy,ten sefirot allowinteraction between God andUniverse.
A difficultythis viewthatKabbalah teaches thatSefirotnot distinct fromEin-Sof, butsomehow within it. The idea that thereten divine sefirot could evolve over time intoidea that "GodOne being, yetthat One being thereTen". This would be almostsame asChristian belief inTrinity, which states that while God"One",that One therethree persons. This interpretationKabbalahfact did occur amongsmall numberJews in17th century. Rabbi Leon Modena,17th century Venetian critickabbalah, wrote that if we wereacceptKabbalah, thenChristian trinity would indeed be compatibleJudaism, asTrinity closely resemblesKabbalistic doctrinesefirot. This critique wasresponse tofact that some Jews went so far asaddress individual sefirot individuallysometheir prayers. Kabbalah had many other opponents, notably Rabbi Yitzchak ben Sheshet Perfet (The Rivash); he stated that Kabbalah was "worse than Christianity", asmade God into 10, not just into three. The critique, however, was unfair. Most followersKabbalah never believed this interpretationKabbalah. The Christian Trinity concept posits that therethree persons existing withinGodhead, onewhom literally becamehuman being. In contrast,mainstream understanding ofKabbalistic sefirot holds thathave no mind or intelligence; further, theynot addressedprayer,they can not becomehuman being. Theyconduitsinteraction - not persons or beings.
The Kabbalah's ideaemanations could also be compared todistinction made by fourteenth century Christian theologian Gregory Palamas. Palamas drewdistinction between God's essenceenergies, affirming that God was unknowableHis essence, but knowableHis energies. Palamas never enumerated God's energies, but described them simply as ways that God could be seen acting inUniverse,particularly on people, fromlight shining fromfaceMoses after Moses descended Mt. Sinai, tolight surrounding Moses, ElijahJesus Christ on Mt. Tabor duringtransfigurationJesus. For Palamas, God's energies were not some otherseparate from God, but were God; howeverideaenergies was kept very distinct fromidea ofthree persons ofTrinity.
Today all Hasidic Orthodox JewsKabbalistic; some non-Hasidic Orthodox Jewskabbalisticly inclined, while somerationalists. Most ReformConservative Jewsrationalists.
Process theologyprocess philosophy definitionGod
Seeentries on process theologypanentheism.
Neopagan ConceptGod and/or gods
Neopaganism allowsdiverse personal beliefs aboutnatureGod. Therelittle specific dogma. Most Neopagans holdpolytheistic, pantheistic or panentheistic belief, oftensome elementsanimism. Among Neopagans,especially Wiccans, Godcommonly expressed throughduality ofGoddess andHorned God. However, therethose Pagans who align themselves withLeft Hand Path or LHP. These LHP Pagansgenerally autotheists, believing thatthemselvesgods or can become gods.
While onsurface neopagans worship many gods, many practicekindmonotheism, believingmany godsbe aspects ofOne God. Many others practice duotheism,examplemany formsWicca all godsconsidered aspects ofLord,all goddesses aspects ofLady.
Most heathens consider themselves strict polytheists.
The Ultimate
Arguably, Eastern conceptionsThe Ultimate (this, too, has many different names)not conceptions ofpersonal divinity, though certain Western conceptionswhatat least called "God" (e.g., Spinoza's pantheistic conceptionvarious kindsmysticism) resemble Eastern conceptionsThe Ultimate.
The mathematician Georg Cantor identified God withmathematical concept ofAbsolute Infinite.
The genderGod
In Judaismisfundamental heresybelieve that God hasgender. Grammatically, most ofHebrew namesGodmasculine;fewgrammatically feminine; thisnot heldhave literal significance. In regardstranslating Hebrew namesGod into English, most Orthodoxmany Conservative Jews argue thatwould be wrongapply English female pronounsGod, not because Godofmale gender, but because doing so tendsdraw attentionGod as having gender,also becauseTanakh (Hebrew Bible) usually uses names thatgrammatically masculine.
In Christianity, one personGod,Son,believedhave become incarnate ashuman male; however,other two personsGodwithout gender, since theynot at all physical. (Mormonisman exception;teaches that GodFather also hasperfect bodyfleshbones, while agreeing thatHoly Spiritbodiless.) The other two persons (the Father andHoly Spirit) have traditionally been referredusing male pronounshave primarily been associatedmale imagery; but some Christians today, especially those inspired by feminism, do not consider this traditionbe binding. Other commentators point out that Hebrew tradition seesSpirit as female.
Most Neopagan traditions, such as Wicca, believeboth malefemale Deities. A few (especially Dianic Wicca) seeDivine as entirely feminine,call herGoddess.
Formore detailed look at this issue, seearticle on Godgender.
Revelation: How God Communicates With Humanity
Many religions hold that God can communicate his willhumanity; this processcalled revelation. Some religions believe that revelationonly availablecertain individuals, dubbed prophets. Others believe that revelationchanneled through divinely sanctioned religious institutions,still other, more mystically oriented religions, believe that revelationgenerally availableall people.
The books ofHebrew Bible (aka Old Testament)heldbeproductrevelation by Jews. Both this andNew Testamentheldbeproductdivine revelation by Christians. Muslims considerHebrew Bible andNew Testamentbe deliberately corrupted works; insteadaffirm thatKoran alone represents divine revelation.
Neopaganists teach that communication fromgodsusually directexperiential,do not haveconcepts"scripture", "prophet" or "revelation" insense used byAbrahamic religions. Divine messagesbelievedusually be given directly toperson or personswhom theymeant. In some traditions,ritual sometimes considered revelatorycalled Drawing DownMoon,whichhigh priestess (or sometimes High Priest) invokesGoddessspeaks by Divine inspirationan assembled coven. This ritual occurs most commonly inWiccan traditions.
OmnipotenceOmniscience
Discussions about God between peopledifferent faiths, or indeed even between people ofsame faith, often prove unproductive,no small amount due people usingsame words but assigning them different meanings. This situation occurs when some monotheists within Christianity, Judaism,Islam state that Godomnipotent. In practice one finds thatterm "omnipotent" has been usedconnotenumberdifferent positions. Seearticles on Omnipotence, OmnipresencePredestination.
Many monotheists reject altogetherview that Godomnipotent. In Unitarian-Universalism, muchConservative JudaismReform Judaism,some liberal wingsProtestant Christianity, Godsaidact inworld through persuasion,not by coercion. God makes Himself manifest inworld through inspiration andcreationpossibility, but not by miracles or violations oflawsnature. The most popular works espousing this point come from Rabbi Harold Kushner (in Judaism). This isview that also was developed independently by Alfred North WhiteheadCharles Hartshorne, intheological system known as process theology.
SeelistDeities from various religions. See also Goddess.
Some ofHindu Gods include Brahman, Devi, Vishnu,Siva. Seeentry on Hinduism fordiscussionthis faith's theology, whichfairly complicated: mostits adherentspolytheists, butfewmonotheists.
God ascomputer, alien, etc.
Some comparatively new belief systemsbooks portray God as an alien. Manythese theories hold that intelligent aliens from another world have been visiting Earthmany thousandsyears,have influenceddevelopmentour religions. Somethese books posit that prophets or messiahs were sent tohuman raceorderteach humanity morality, andencourage our civilizationgrowdevelop.
Some people have posited that perhaps Godreally an intelligence that at some point inpast become sufficiently advanced thatuploaded itself tovery fabric ofcosmos. In this view, this god-intelligence now looks overEarth.
Similarthis theory isbelief or aspiration that humans will createGod entity, emerging from an artificial intelligence. Arthur C. Clarke,science fiction writer (and futuristsorts), saidan interview that: It may be that our role on this planetnotworship God, butcreate him.
Another variant on this hypothesisthat humanity orsegmenthumanity will, through self-evolution, createposthuman God from itself.
See also: Satan, The Devil, The relationship between religionscience -- The natureGod -- Godgender
References
- Karen Armstrong, A HistoryGod: The 4,000-Year QuestJudaism, ChristianityIslam, Ballantine Books, 1994
- Jack Miles, God : A Biography, Knopf, 1995.
- Cliff Pickover, The ParadoxGod andScienceOmniscience, Palgrave/St Martin's Press, 2001.
- Dr. William Lane Craig, Talbot SchoolTheology. http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/menus/
- The Etymology ofNameGod
- God as`Great Programmer' who wroteprogramour universe?
Godalsoname ofsong by John Lennon on Plastic Ono Band.
