Genetic engineering
"Genetic Engineering", "Genetic Modification" (GM),"Gene Splicing" (oncewidespread use but now deprecated) describeprocessmanipulating genesan organism, usually outside oforganism's normal reproductive process.
It often involvesisolation, manipulationreintroductionDNA into model organisms, usuallyexpressprotein. The aimintroduce new genetic characteristicsan organismincrease its usefulness such as, increasingyield ofcrop species, introducingnovel characteristic, or producingnew protein or enzyme. Examples areproductionhuman insulin throughusemodified bacteria andproductionnew typesmice likeOncoMouse, (cancer mouse)research, through genetic redesign.
Sinceproteinspecified byDNA segment or gene, future copiesthat protein can be modified by changinggene's underlying DNA. One waydo this isisolateDNA, cut it,splice indifferent DNA segment. Daniel NathansHamilton Smith received1978 Nobel Prizephysiology or medicinetheir isolationrestriction endonucleases, whichablecut DNA at specific sites. Togetherligase, which can join together fragmentsDNA, restriction enzymes formedinitial basisrecombinant DNA technology.
Naming
Genetic modification or genetic manipulationneutralpossibly more technically correct termswhatclaimed, controversially,be genetic engineering.
Many opponents ofuse ofterm 'genetic engineering' argueoperationsgenescombinationcell biochemistryrather poorly understood sometimes leadunexpected side effects.
Reluctancerecognize this field as "engineering" has become popular inanti-globalization movementsafe trade movement,is also widely held by most Green parties, andmajor partiesFranceGermany, which have resisted any agricultural policy favoring genetically modified food. These groups tendresistlabel 'engineer' as appliedsuch genetic modification most strongly.
Defenders ofterm genetic engineering argue that animal husbandrycrop breedingalso formsgenetic engineering that use artificial selection insteadmodern genetic modification techniques. Itpolitics,argue, not economics or science, that causes their workbe closely investigated,for different standardsapplyit thanother fieldsengineering. These scientists, however, do not object toterm 'genetic modification' as appliedwhatdo, although itsometimes useddeny themstatusprofessionals serving societyan ethical manner, whichone implication ofterm engineer.
Applications
The best known applicationsgenetic engineeringgenetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Therepotentially momentous biotechnology applicationsGM,example oral vaccines produced naturallyfruit at very low cost. This represents, however,spreadgenetic modificationmedical purposesopens an ethical doorother uses oftechnologydirectly modify human genomes.
These effectsoften not traceable backdirect causes ingenome, but rather inenvironment or interactionproteins. The means by which 'genes' (in fact DNA strands thatassumedhave discrete effects)detectedinsertedinexact, including such means as coating gold BBsDNAbe insertedliterally firingat strandstarget DNA, whichguaranteedcause insertionsat least some random locations, which can on rare occasion cause unplanned charecteristics.
Similar objections applyprotein engineeringmolecular engineeringuse as drugs. However,single protein ormoleculeeasierexamine'quality control' thancomplete genome,theremore limited claims made forreliabilityproteinsmolecules, than forgenomeswhole organisms. While proteinmolecule engineers often times acknowledgerequirementtest their products inwide varietyenvironmentsdetermine ifpose dangerslife,positionmany genetic engineersthatdo not needdo so, sinceoutputstheir work'substantiallysame as'original organism which was produced byoriginal genome(s).
An extreme ambitionsome groupshuman augmentation via genetics, eventually by artificial intelligence or molecular engineering. See also: transhumanism.
Genetic EngineeringResearch
Althoughthere has beentremendous revolution inbiological sciences inpast twenty years, therestillgreat deal that remainsbe discovered. The completion ofsequencing ofhuman genome, as well asgenomesmost agriculturallyscientifically important plantsanimals, have increasedpossibilitiesgenetic research immeasurably. Expedientinexpensive accesscomprehensive genetic data has becomereality,billionssequenced nucleotides already onlineannotated. Now thatrapid sequencingarbitrarily large genomes has becomesimple, if not trivial affair,much greater challenge will be elucidating function ofextraordinarily complex webinteracting proteins, dubbedproteome, that constitutespowers all living things. Genetic engineering has becomegold standardprotein research,major research process has been made usingwide varietytechniques, including
- lossfunction, such as inknockout experiment,which an organismengineeredlack one or more genes. This allowsexperimenteranalyzedefects caused by this mutation,can be considerably usefulunearthingfunction ofgene. Itused especially frequentlydevelopmental biology. A knockout experiment involvescreationmanipulation ofDNA constructvitro, which, insimple knockout, consists ofcopy ofdesired gene which has been slightly altered such ascripple its function. The constructthen taken up by embryonic stem cells, whereengineered copy ofgene replacesorganism's own gene. These stem cellsinjected into blastocysts, whichimplanted into surrogate mothers. Another method, usefulorganisms such as drosophila, isinduce mutations inlarge populationthen screenprogeny fordesired mutation. A similar process can be usedboth plantsprokaryotes.
- gainfunction experiments,logical counterpartknockouts. Thesesometimes performedconjunctionknockout experimentsmore finely establishfunction ofdesired gene. The processmuchsame as thatknockout engineering, except thatconstructdesignedincreasefunction ofgene, usually by providing extra copies ofgene or attracting more frequent transcription.
- 'tracking' experiments, which seekgain information aboutlocalizationinteraction ofdesired protein. One waydo this isreplacewild-type gene with'fusion' gene, which isjuxtaposition ofwild-type gene withreporting element such as green fluorescent protein that will allow easy visualization ofproducts ofgenetic modification. While this isuseful technique,manipulation can destroyfunction ofgene, creating secondary effectspossibly calling into questionresults ofexperiment. More sophisticated techniquesnowdevelopment that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such asadditionsmall sequences which will serve as binding motifsmonoclonal antibodies.
Ethics
Genetic engineering proponents argue thattechnologyharmlessnecessaryfood productioncontinuematch population growth. Others oppose this view, ongrounds that genetic modifications may have unforseen consequences, both ininitially modified organisms,their environments. For example, certain strainsmaize have been developed thattoxicplant eating insects (see bt corn). However, when those strains cross-polinatedother varietieswilddomestic maize,relevant genes were passed onunintended ways. This modifiedvery gene pool from whichmaize was derived.
Anti-genetic-engineering groups propose that genetic releases such as this representopening ofPandora's Box which may ultimately acceleratecollapse ofmodern systemagriculture, decreasing rather than increasingfood supply. They say thatcurrent recombinant technology thereno wayensure that genetically modified organisms remain under control, andusethis technology outsidesecure laboratory environments carries grave risks forfuture.
Many also fear that certain typesgenetically engineered crops will enableeliminationall biodiversity incropland; herbicide-tolerant crops willexample be treated withrelevant herbicide toextent that thereno wild plants ('weeds') ablesurvive,plants toxicinsects will mean insect-free crops. This could resultmajor declinesother wildlife (e.g. birds) which depend on weed seeds and/or insectsfood resources. The recent (2003) farm scale studiesBritain found thisbecaseGM sugar beetGM oilseed rape, but notGM maize (though inlast instance,non-GM comparison maize crop had also been treatedenvironmentally damaging pesticides subsequently (2004) withdrawn from use inEU).
Proponentscurrent genetic techniques as appliedfood plants citebenefits thattechnology can have,example, inharsh agricultural conditionsthird world countries. They say thatmodifications, existing crops would be ablethrive underrelatively hostile conditions providing much needed foodtheir people. While submitting that precautions should be madeensure that any modified cropscontained,say that their genetically engineered cropsnot significantly different from those modified by nature or humans inpast,by extensionnot dangerousother crops. The expansionnew croplands into areas currently too harshgrow cropsalso likelyhave deleterious effects onwildlife currently using these uncultivated areas. Theregene transfer between unicellular eukaryotesprokaryotes. There have been no known genetic catastrophes asresultthis.
EconomicPolitical Effects
Many oppenentscurrent genetic engineering believeincreasing useGMmajor crops has causedpower shiftagriculture towards Biotechnology companies gaining far greater control overproduction chaincropsfood then any previous industry,overfarmers that use their products, as well.
Many propenentscurrent genetic engineering techniques believewill bring higher yieldsprofitibilitymany farmers, especially thosethird world countries.
Genetic EngineeringFiction
In Marvel Comics,31st century adventurers calledGuardians ofGalaxygenegineered residentsMercury, Jupiter,Pluto.
InStar Trek universe,Breen, Species 8472,Xindi, andFederation use technologyorganic components.
InStar Wars universe,Yuuzhan Vong arerace, who exclusively use organic technologyregard mechanical technology as heresy. Everything from starshipscommunications devicesweaponsbredgrownsuit their needs.
The film Gattaca had themesgenetic engineering.
